© Benaki Phytopathological Institute
Martinou
et al.
32
ish. The first- instar larvae have an average
length of 1 mm which increases to 2 mm
within 8 days. Second, third and fourth- in-
stars grow to 3, 6 and 13 mm, typically in 8,
8 and 9 days, respectively. Their colour var-
ies, with extremes of yellow and/or green-
ish shades with or without pink markings
(2). Pupae are very hairy in shades of green,
pale-yellow or brown, with brown mottling
and an average length of 9 mm (2). Female
adults have a wingspan of 18-27 mm while
male adults have a wingspan of 15-23 mm.
The two sexes are similar in appearance.
Adults have a bronze-brown colouring at the
upper surface with white spots on the fringe
and highly-patterned undersides. They also
bear substantial tails on their hindwings,
along with a nearby eye spot, which diverts
attacks from birds and other predators away
from the critical body parts.
The species is indigenous to Southern
Africa (2). According to the EPPO distribu-
tion maps of quarantine pests,
C. marshalli
is present (with no detailed records) in Bo-
tswana, Lesotho, Mozambique, South Afri-
ca, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. To date it has
been observed in European countries such
as Belgium and Italy with a few occurrences,
France and mainland Spain, where it is re-
corded as present with a restricted distribu-
tion, and finally Germany, Portugal and the
Balearic and Canary islands, where it is re-
ported as present but with no detailed re-
cords. This is the first record for mainland
Greece while there are previous records for
the species from the Ionian island of Corfu
(7, 10).
Pelargonium
spp., commonly known as
geraniums, are the main host plants of this
pest but the butterfly also has the capacity
to infest native
Geranium
spp. (8).
Cacyreus marshalli
is on the EPPO A2
List of pests recommended for regula-
tion as quarantine pests. Although on the
EPPO A2 List,
C. marshalli
has not been
regulated as a quarantine pest by Euro-
pean Regional Plant Protection Organiza-
tions and it has managed to spread rapid-
ly in islands and mainland Spain and Italy
(4, 9). The potential for natural spread of
this pest is very low as its flights are short
in duration with frequent rests (3). The
most likely means of international disper-
sal is the movement of infested plant ma-
terial. The example of the rapid establish-
ment of
C. marshalli
on Mallorca (Balearic
Islands) and its spread to the Spanish
mainland shows that the pest has the po-
tential to establish in the Mediterranean
basin and could pose a threat for the Eu-
ropean mainland. Geraniums are exten-
sively grown as ornamental plants almost
throughout Europe, but Spain, France, It-
aly and Greece, as well as North Africa,
are at greater risk since their climatic con-
ditions would allow the pest to overwin-
ter outdoors. Furthermore, breeding and
propagation of geraniums play an impor-
tant role in these regions. Elsewhere in
Europe, the pest could establish in glass-
houses (1).
Cacyreus marshalli
has never been re-
Figure 3.
Egg of
Cacyreus marshalli.
Figure 4.
Caterpillars of
Cacyreus marshalli
.
1,2,3 5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,...46